Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh

Agar firdaus bar roo-e zameen ast,

Hameen ast-o hameen ast-o hameen ast.

If there is paradise on this earth,

it is this, it is this, it is this.

- Amir Khusrau.

Kashmir's beauty is unparalleled, so is its history. Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh have strange nexus in history, making it triad of Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist religion and culture. Its unique place in India's political history, and the international controversies, makes it the most talked about state in public discourse.

Early History

Kashmir is unique for its extensive tradition of historical documentation, dating back to the 12th century CE when Kalhana authored the Rajatarangini. This text is a seminal chronicle of the region's ancient history, covering its dynastic politics and significant cultural shifts under a diverse array of rulers, including Hindus and Buddhists.

Muslim and Sikh rule in Kashmir

From 1339 to 1586, Kashmir was ruled by Muslim sultans who brought Islamic influence to the region. Following this period, the Mughals took control in 1586 under Emperor Akbar, initiating a long stint of Mughal rule that lasted until 1752. This era was known for significant developments in art, architecture, and culture, alongside the consolidation of power. At this time, the region was also influenced by the Sufi tradition of Islam, introduced two centuries prior by Nund Rishi.

The Mughal era was succeeded by Afghan rule (after Ahmad Shah Durrani conquered Kashmir in 1752 CE) from 1753 to 1819, a period characterized by political instability and less cultural flourishing compared to the Mughal administration. In 1819, the Sikhs under Maharaja Ranjit Singh defeated the Sultans and annexed Kashmir, leading to a Sikh rule that lasted until 1846. This period saw administrative reforms but was also marked by religious persecution.

Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh

The state of Jammu and Kashmir earlier referred to itself as Riyasat e Jammu wa Kashmir wa Ladakh wa Tibet (Kingdom of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, and Tibet). Jammu has historically been associated with the Dogra dynasty, either directly ruled by them or under the larger dominion of Delhi or within the jurisdiction of the Suba of Punjab. Jammu and Kashmir became one political/administrative unit only after the Anglo-Sikh War of 1846. While much of the focus and contention has been on the Kashmir Valley, other areas such as Jammu have not received as much attention in discourse. The perspectives and interests of people in frontier regions like Ladakh, Chitral, Gilgit, Baltistan, and Tibet have been further marginalized in mainstream discussions.

Ladakh

In the early 17th century, Ladakh was an independent state with its religious affiliations under the influence of the Dalai Lama and Tibetan Buddhism. By the mid-18th century (1834), Ladakh was invaded by the Dogra forces from Jammu under the leadership of Zorawar Singh, which led to its incorporation into the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. General Zorawar Singh's military campaigns significantly extended the Dogra territory. He successfully annexed Gilgit-Baltistan in 1839/40, extending his control over areas such as Yasin, Humza, Darel, Chilas, Chitral, and Nagar. In 1841, he launched an ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful campaign into Tibet. This period marked a significant expansion of the Dogra influence in the region, shaping its political landscape over the ensuing years. Under the Dogra rule, Ladakh became a strategic region on the northern frontier of India. It served as a commercial and cultural bridge between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent along the Silk Route.

Anglo Sikh War and Dogra Rule

After the Sikh defeat at the hands of the British in the Anglo-Sikh War of 1846, Dogra Raja Gulab Singh, a former general and confidant of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, acquired the 'kingdom' for 75 lakh Nanak Shahi rupees via the Treaty of Amritsar. The British had multiple strategic goals with this arrangement — they aimed to weaken the Sikhs following their defeat at the Battle of Sobraon, establish a buffer zone between their Indian territories and the expanding interests of Russia and China, and recuperate the costs they had incurred during the war.

After purchasing Kashmir, the Dogras focused on recouping this investment from their subjects, adopting a rentier approach rather than a benevolent rule. They heavily taxed everyone, including artisans, carpenters, boatmen, butchers, bakers, and even prostitutes, leading to widespread resentment and suffering.

In the 1920s, due to the predominance of Dogras and Punjabis, along with some Kashmiri Pandits, in high state offices, resentment grew among Muslim subjects in the region. In response to rising discontent and demands for jobs by locals, Maharaja Hari Singh introduced preferential policies for state subjects from 1927. He later established a legislative assembly, the Praja Sabha, in 1934. However, the assembly's powers were limited, and the majority of its members were appointed rather than elected, leading to criticisms of it being a mere "mock show" by figures like Sheikh Abdullah, who lamented the suppression of popular voices.

Rise of Sheikh Abdullah

By 1935, Sheikh Abdullah had become the prominent leader of Kashmir and the head of the All J&K Muslim Conference, though his influence was largely confined to the Kashmiri Muslims and did not extend significantly into Jammu, Ladakh, or the frontier regions. Recognizing the need for a more inclusive approach, Abdullah transformed the Muslim Conference into the J&K National Conference (NC) in 1938, opening membership to Hindus and Sikhs and changing the party flag from green with a white crescent to red with a white plough. Despite these changes, the NC struggled to expand beyond the Valley.

In May 1946, Sheikh Abdullah initiated the Quit Kashmir movement against Maharaja Hari Singh, which led to his arrest and a three-year imprisonment sentence. However, he was released after just sixteen months in September 1947, following interventions by Nehru and Gandhi. Just before Indian independence, both major political factions in Kashmir—the National Conference and the Muslim Conference—were led by Muslims, predominantly supported by Muslims, and both of their leaders were incarcerated.

Idea of an Independent Kashmir

In Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh felt that he could perhaps manoeuvre an independent kingdom for himself, and he instructed his Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak to bide time. Disliking the idea of becoming a part of India, which was being democratized, or of Pakistan, which was Islamic, Hari Singh saw the independence of Jammu and Kashmir as an alternative and viable option. Kak fueled Hari Singh’s desires, making him believe that Jammu and Kashmir could be an independent country.

Jinnah's offer and Hari Singh's Refusal

In July 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and his team actively sought to negotiate with Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir, offering him favorable conditions that would exclude the Congress and Sheikh Abdullah. These conditions included promises of complete internal autonomy with a largely nominated Assembly, as Jinnah was not particularly supportive of democratic governance. Despite these enticing offers, the Maharaja resisted, also declining Jinnah's request to visit the state for health reasons, recognizing the potential political complications his presence might cause.

Timeline of Hari Singh signing the Instruments of Accession:

August 11, 1947 - Appointment of Major General Janak Singh Katoch: Major General Janak Singh Katoch is appointed as the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, brought out of retirement to manage the state.
Late August to Early September 1947 - Standstill Agreement and Communal Violence: Katoch signs the Standstill Agreement with Pakistan, amid escalating communal violence in Jammu, Poonch, and Mirpur and an influx of refugees. The political situation deteriorates with the relinquishment of Gilgit and failure of state troops to control violence.
September 1947 - Revolts and Invasion Preparation: The Muslim League incites revolts in Poonch, Mirpur, and Muzaffarabad. Liaquat Ali Khan, encouraged by key military and political figures, prepares for a large-scale invasion by Pathan tribesmen.
September 19, 1947 - Request for Essential Supplies: Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan, the Maharaja’s nominee for Prime Minister, visits Delhi to request essential supplies blockaded by Pakistan and communicates the Maharaja’s willingness to accede to India.
September 22, 1947 - Tribal Militia Gains Control: Tribal militias gain control over most of the western parts of Jammu and Kashmir

September 29, 1947 : Release of Sheikh Abdullah: Under conditions set by Nehru, the Maharaja releases Sheikh Abdullah from prison to gain his endorsement for accession.

October 22, 1947 - Formation of Provisional Azad Kashmir: Following control by Pathan tribesmen, a provisional government called "Azad Kashmir" is formed in the western parts of the state.
October 24-25, 1947 - the Government of India received urgent appeals for help from the Maharajah of Kashmir as raiders advanced towards Srinagar, planning to arrive by 26 October for Id celebrations. The Defence Committee, chaired by Lord Mountbatten on 25 October, deliberated on the Maharajah's requests for military aid but decided to gather more information before taking action. V.P. Menon was sent to assess the situation firsthand.

October 26, 1947: Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instruments of Accession, acceding Jammu and Kashmir to India, with unique provisions for a future reference to the people.
October 27, 1947: The Instrument of Accession is accepted by Lord Mountbatten, allowing Indian troops to enter and stabilize the region.